Salt is an essential nutrient for cells and organs, and living creatures are drawn to it to maintain health. Salt is also a universal flavor enhancer: it reduces bitterness and enhances sweetness and sourness. As Job puts it, “Can that which is unsavory be eaten without salt?” (Job 6:6). In addition to enhancing flavor, salt was a major agent in the preservation of meat and fish, important protein sources which were preserved and traded widely, as well as in preserving vegetables and fruit, such as olives, and in the making of cheese. Significant quantities of salt were used in the leather industry, while less voluminous but important industries such as glazing ceramics, separating gold from silver and dyeing textiles, depended on salt as well. It was widely used in medicine and cosmetics, as it is to this day.

As a substance in constant demand, which may be stored safely for a long period, salt was used as a primitive currency and a means of paying salaries, as in the case of the Roman army (sal = salt in Latin). In many periods the salt tax was a major source of income for the state and often became a state monopoly. The routes used to transfer salt from the areas of production to the markets were some of the main roads throughout history. In many maritime civilizations, such as the Phoenician, salt was a staple, around which the commercial uses of other goods of marine trade were developed. In all the ancient Near-Eastern cultures, salt played an important role in religious rites: “And every oblation of thy meat offering shalt thou season with salt” (Leviticus 2:13). Salt was used in war, spread on the soil to curse the vanquished lands (Judges 9:45) and in peace, formalizing treaties and agreements: “It is a covenant of salt forever before the Lord” (Numbers 18:19). In the New Testament, Jesus compared his followers to salt: “Ye are the salt of the earth” (Mathew 5:13).

The Salt Production System and Installations

Several natural features are necessary for the production of salt from seawater. The most important are a wide flat coastal space with a water impervious bottom, suitable for evaporation pans and a hot climate with a dry season for harvesting the salt. It is desirable that the level of the pans is lower than, or close to, sea level, to allow sea water supply to the pans by gravitation or by simple means without investing much energy, as in the case of some natural coastal salt marshes. A rocky stable coast, suitable for the base of pumps and lifting devices operated by man or animal power, or later also by the wind, is ideal. Finally, a nearby anchorage for transportation of processed salt, as well as suitable roads inland, are desirable. The topographical features of the Galilee and Carmel coasts of northern Israel render these areas most suitable for salt production. Recent archaeological finds attest to the development of a large-scale salt production in these areas, while the first modern salt industry in the country was also founded there, in Atlit.

The ancient installations for the production of salt may be divided into three main elements: 1. Lifting and pumping devices, 2. Channels for conveying water, from the sea to the pans, by gravity, 3. Evaporation pans.

1. The pumping and lifting devices were of three main types: a. a lifting slope, natural or cut in the rock; b. lifting and conveying channels, cut in the abrasion platform or the Kurkar (calcareous sandstone of aeolian origin), both using wave energy, which may push the water by the effect of “run-up” to 1-2 meters above sea level; c. Seawater wells, natural cavities or man-made wells cut in the rock, which served the various types of lifting devises erected over them. In cases where the topography did not allow lifting and conveying the water in one stage, intermediate lifting/collecting pools were cut in the rock, from which the water flowed through the conveying channels to the evaporation pans. In some cases, these elements were interchangeable, according to sea conditions and wave-height.

2. The conveying channels, which directed the water eastward to the evaporation pans, were curved in the rock and are found all along the coast. They are the most prominent feature of the salt industry that has survived to this day. In some places, parts of these channels were constructed of wood and mud and did not survive.

3. The evaporation pans required a large low-lying area, with a flat and impermeable clayey bottom. The troughs (flat lowlands) between the longitudinal Kurkar ridges that run parallel to the coast offer exactly these conditions. The crystallization of the salt was achieved in consecutive stages, in order to eliminate minor components that affect the quality such as gypsum (calcium sulfate). At the last stage, the salt was harvested by hand and piled into typical pyramids, which may be seen even today in modern salt plants. In the western Galilee, five such sites have been identified, the most elaborate being Birket Sursuq, just south of Nahariya.

Between Atlit and Dor, on the Carmel coast, 28 installations were identified, with the most elaborate ones concentrated around Atlit. Salt being a heavy bulky material, it was often transported by ship. The ports of Akhziv and Akko in the western Galilee and Atlit, Dor and Caesarea on the Carmel coast facilitated the marketing of the salt locally and internationally.

Historical Evidence and Dating

The techniques and methods of the salt industry in the region have not changed much since antiquity. The oldest historical mention of such installation may be that of Misrephoth-Maim (Jos 11:8, 13:6), which in Hebrew means burning of seawater and may indicate solar salt production. This term was translated into Aramaic as Charizei Yama, meaning cuttings in the sea, which may refer to the conveying channels found there (south of Rosh Hanikra).

Other place names indicate a connection with the salt industry, including Horvat Mallaha (Melah, Mileh = salt in Hebrew and Arabic) some seven kilometers north of Akko (Acre), Al-Maqali (frying pans = evaporation pans) in Atlit, Migdal Milha or Turis Salinarum (in Crusader sources) north of Caesarea, and Wadi Mileh, the main road leading east to the Lake of Galilee and its fishing industry. Salt manufacturing installations are referred to in historical sources from the Hellenistic through the Roman, Byzantine and Crusader periods. Some were renewed and reused in the 19th century until the founding of the first modern plant in the early 20th century. It is difficult to date them precisely, because the old establishments were often reused or destroyed, fully or in part, by the new ones. However, the archaeological context and historical records suggest that most of the installations were in use between the second century B.C.E to the 13th century C.E.

Sea-Level Changes

The detailed study of the salt installations along the coasts of northern Israel has also contributed to the debate on sea-level and coastal changes through the ages. These salt production installations may serve as reliable sea-level markers. Given that they fit the present-day sea level, it seems that land-sea conditions have been stable in the last two millennia, with no major changes.

Salt is a universal human substance. While our ideas about how much to consume have changed, our need for it has not, nor has its ability to tell us about our history.

Ehud Galili is a marine archaeologist, a lecturer and a research fellow in the Zinman Institute of Archaeology and the Maritime Civilizations department at the University of Haifa.

Sarah Arenson is a maritime researcher and historian and an environmental activist.

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