Who’s the Fairest of them all? Feminine Beauty in the Hebrew Bible and Iron Age Ivory Sculpture

By: Amy Rebecca Gansell

From fairy tales to fashion magazines, notions of feminine beauty pervade the world we live in. But what does the Hebrew Bible have to say about this topic? And how might archaeological artifacts help us to see and understand ancient beauty?

Hundreds of Levantine ivory sculptures portraying female figures date to the early first millennium BCE, around the time that the Hebrew Bible, which includes references to feminine beauty, was first written. Together, the sculptures and scriptures illustrate aesthetic values of the early Iron Age Levant, where ivory products would have been commissioned and consumed by elites as pleasing symbols of prestige.

The Hebrew Bible associates ivory goods with royalty. Amos (3:15, 6:4) mentions beds embellished with ivory, while First Kings refers to Ahab’s house of ivory (1 Kings 22:39) and Solomon’s ivory throne (1 Kings 10:18). The excavated ivory sculptures include a motif known as the “woman at the window” clothed as well as nude full-length figures, and an assortment of heads. The woman-at-the-window motif probably represents a royal woman in her palace. Her position at a window evokes the story of the infamous queen Jezebel (2 Kings 9:30), but, decorating luxury furnishings, this motif would not have had a negative connotation. Likewise, the nude figures were positive portrayals of fantastical women, not slaves or prostitutes.

By linking metaphoric images represented in both art and text we can interpret both the positive and negative aspects of inner and outer beauty. In the Hebrew Bible, beauty is sometimes presented as a dangerous and corrupting agent (Ezekial 16:15-16), but feminine beauty is often an asset. Externally beautiful women may be esteemed for their virtues. Inner beauty is based on kindheartedness and incorruptibility. Intelligent, industrious wives and mothers serve as role models (Proverbs 31:10-31).

Physical vigor is also esteemed. For example, Rebekah proves her endurance by hauling water from the well to Abraham’s servant and all of his camels (Genesis 24:20). Signifying strength, imagery of a mare and military architecture describes the female beloved in the Song of Songs (1:9, 4:4, 4:7). The role of beauty in the Song’s amorous contexts reveals its sexual dimension as well. The fecund environment described in the Song provides a backdrop for the couple’s passion and alludes to their reproductive capacity (2:11-13). The narratives of Rachel and Leah (Genesis 29) and of Sarah’s pregnancy (Genesis 21:2-7) further attest to the importance of women’s fertility.

Although aspects of a woman’s inner beauty and physical capacities could outshine visible symptoms age (Proverbs 31:30, Gen 21:7), outer beauty was nonetheless linked to the biological factors of youth, health, and fertility. These are evident in the ivory figures’ round breasts, small waists, slightly protruding bellies, plump buttocks, slender limbs, and erect postures (see Figures 5-7). The relative uniformity of the sculptures suggests that they illustrated a body type that was collectively recognized as beautiful. Other traits contributing to a visual code of feminine beauty include the sculptures’ large eyes and long, meticulously styled hair (see Figures 8-11). The Hebrew Bible confirms the allure of large eyes, which are compared to pools in the Song of Songs (7:4). Indeed, her lover confesses, “You have ravished my heart with a glance of your eyes” (4:9). But, demonstrating the negative potential of striking eyes, Proverbs 6:25 warns against wayward women who might ensnare men with their eyelashes.

The Hebrew Bible also praises the beauty of women’s hair (Song 4:1, 6:5, 7:5). Framing the face and covering the bare shoulders of nude ivory figures, long hair may have had erotic connotations (see Figures 6, 7, 11) Probably referring to tresses tumbling over the woman’s body, the Song (4:1) describes her hair as “a flock of goats, descending from the hills of Gilead.” Further emphasizing the hair as an attribute of biblical beauty, vain women with “well dressed hair” are condemned to baldness (Isaiah 3:24), and women in mourning shave their heads (Deuteronomy 21:12).

In the Hebrew Bible, fragrance, cosmetics, dress, and adornment can express and augment the attractiveness of virtuous women. Some women’s names reflect these practices. Basemath means “fragrant with balsam” (Gen 26:34, 36:3; 1 Kgs 4:15), and one of Job’s beautiful daughters was called Keren-Happuch, meaning “horn of eye-paint” (Job 42:14). Eye make-up is mentioned as both a positive and negative tool (2 Kings 9:30, Jeremiah 4:30, Ezekial 23:40). Illustrating its effect, the eyes of one famous ivory sculpture, known as the “Mona Lisa of Nimrud,” are outlined in black (see Figure 12)

Dress can also beautify a woman’s image (Ruth 3:3). In the Bible, clothing communicates dignity as well as wealth (Proverbs 31:25). Lavish dress is noted for its color and gold ornamentation (Exodus 39:1-31, Judges 5:30, Proverbs 31:21-22, Ps 45:13-14, Jeremiah 4:30, 2 Samuel 1:24). The pleats, drapery, and copious fabric of the garments represented on the ivory figures corroborate the importance of clothing (see Figure 4). In addition, the Hebrew Bible cites jewelry of gold, silver, and gemstones. In the Song of Songs, the female beloved wears a necklace (1:10, 4:9), and her neck is described as a tower decorated with shields (4:4). This metaphor evokes the necklaces depicted on some of the ivory sculptures (such as the head on the right in Figure 8). Overall, although personal enhancement itself is not scorned, the Hebrew Bible clearly warns against its unethical uses (Isaiah 3:16-24; Jeremiah 4:30; Ezekial 16:15-18, 23:40-42). Nothing can disguise the ugliness of a woman who lacks inner beauty.

Beauty is a beast. It is a powerful phenomenon that inspires and challenges us yet today. In the era of the Hebrew Bible, ivory sculptures of women presented visual and tactile models of female attractiveness, while the scripture demonstrated beauty’s positive and negative potential. In biblical culture the ideal concurrence of inner and outer beauty seems to have ultimately supported social and cultural values rooted in spousal fidelity and childbearing. Thus, women of all classes could aspire to and be celebrated for their beauty, inside and out.

Amy Rebecca Gansell is Assistant Professor of Art and Design at St. Johns University.