The goddess worshipped in Cyprus, variously known from inscriptional sources as Wanassa or Paphia, is enigmatic because so little is known of her cult. Although the goddess remains obscure, telling characteristics of her nature can be gleaned from investigation into the origin of her divinity. Homeric and Hesiodic sources linked the goddess to a Greek tradition whereby she was regarded as a divinity who explicitly embodied sexuality and sensual pleasures. The character of the Cypriot goddess, however, was of abundant complexity and the various aspects of her persona, certainly prior to the Classical period, argue for influence from Near Eastern sources-primarily the Sumerian Inanna and her subsequent manifestations as Ishtar and the Canaanite/Phoenician goddesses Astarte, Anat, and even Asherah. Examination of textual material as well as select iconographic representations suggest three primary spheres of influence that these goddesses encompassed: sexuality, fertility and ferocity. Assessed within the Near Eastern literary and artistic tradition, the Cypriot goddess inherited a spectrum of qualities derived from Near Eastern female divinities, which goes far in explaining the multi-faceted nature of her personality in Cyprus.
The transmittal, influence, and survival of Minoan architectural features and building practices towards the end of the Bronze Age has been detected in Cyprus in the form of stepped bases and capitals as well as ashlar veneering (Hult SIMA 66:89). Similar architectural elements can be detected in the form of horned altars, a small sunken room reminiscent of a Minoan "lustral basin" at Hala Sultan Tekke, and aniconic religious images.
Continuity and similarity in terms of social and ritual practices are more slippery and less easy to determine. One example of such continuity might be found at Kalavassos-Ayios Dhimitreos House X, the "Ashlar Building." House X incorporates a wing devoted to the storage of pithoi on the west in association with ashlar pillar supports. A similar arrangement and an identical location for storage areas was a regular features of the earlier Minoan "Palaces."
The use of the pillar in Minoan buildings has been symbolically linked to the worship of stalactites and stalagmites in sacred caves. Its recurring use in association with storage areas has been interpreted as serving to protect the storage area while the stored goods could have been periodically released for purposes of communal feasting. Based on its monumental size, arrangement of features, and quality of workmanship a similar scenario drawing out the relationships between ritual, storage and communal feasting is formulated for House X.
Analysis of the burial customs of Hellenistic and Roman Cyprus gives us a clearer picture of this often neglected province. The various components-cemetery layout and appearance, tombstones and epitaphs, architecture, rite of deposition, sarcophagi and cremation urns, and burial assemblages-allow one to disentangle various ethnic strands and influences in the archaeological record. During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, mainstream Roman and Eastern provincial elements augment the native Cypriot customs. Such combinations confirm that far from being the provincial backwater as it is often described, Cyprus was open to outside influences.
The results of the 1997 field season of the University of Albany's Sotira Archeological Project produced unexpected results. Despite the presence of several Bronze Age sites the most important finds, along with the bulk of the cultural material, date to the late Roman and early Byzantine periods. This in turn required a reassessment of the political and agricultural life of the rural population surrounding the city of Curium in late Roman and early Byzantine times with reference to the reforms implemented by Diocletian. These reforms, apart from providing the core of the late Roman administrative system, contained tax reforms that centered on the rural population. This paper proposes to discuss the finds from the survey and their implications for Cyprus; as well as their relevance to events that were reshaping the late Roman world, just prior to the upheavals caused by the emergence of Islam and the resulting Arab raids on Cyprus starting in the mid-seventh century.
Recent attempts to formulate a "low chronology" for the cultural sequence of Iron Age Palestine hinge on a redating of key strata at a number of pivotal Iron Age sites. This paper will examine the case for one of these sites, that of Megiddo, and more specifically the revisionist proposal to down-date the destruction of Megiddo Stratum VIA to the 925 BCE campaign of Shishak/Sheshonq I. Ever since the Oriental Institute excavations in the 1920s and 1930s, the Megiddo sequence has played a central role in efforts to reconstruct the cultural and historical development of the region. In the case of Stratum VI, unpublished records from the Oriental Institute excavations offer a view of the site that contrasts substantially with the poorly preserved stratum implied in the official final reports. Instead, these records reveal a well-preserved (and extensively excavated) settlement, and afford the opportunity to reassess thoroughly the nature and character of the community that lived there. While these records do not provide any new and independent chronological "anchors," they nevertheless place Stratum VI securely within its regional cultural context. The evidence indicates a flourishing settlement with strong cultural links to the preceding Late Bronze Age that enjoyed extensive contacts with both highland and lowland Iron I communities on the eve of its destruction, and seriously undermines the possibility that the life of the settlement could have extended down to the end of the tenth century.
The mountain of Herodion is one of the Judean palace-fortresses built by King Herod the Great. It is distinguished by its truncated conical shape, which was created by pouring an earth and stone rampart around the outside of two concentric walls with towers. The palace rooms were located in a depression within the inner circular wall. Another palatial complex has been uncovered on the northern side of the mountain. Herodion is apparently the only monument Herod named after himself. This is probably due to its function as a victory memorial marking the spot where Herod defeated the Jews in a battle. The name also seems to reflect Herod's intention that the site serve as his final resting place. Herodion's distinctive shape, as well as the fact that Herod's architecture was inspired by contemporary Hellenistic and Italic models, have led scholars to search for a prototype. The most liekly candidate until now has been the Mausoleum of Augustus in Rome. Despite the remarkable similarities in function and design, however, the known chronology suggests that the Mausoleum of Augustus could not have served as the direct source of inspiration for Herodion. In this paper I propose that the similarities between the two monuments reflect the inspiration of a common prototype: the Mausoleum of Alexander in Alexandria.
This paper will present a theoretical model for determining cult in the archaeological record, based on anthropological approaches to the study of religion. The model will consist of a series of potential archaeological correlates that will then be used to confirm the existence of a sacred area at Tel Haror during the Middle Bronze Age.
Excavated since 1982 by E. D. Oren under the auspices of Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Tel Haror lies on the northern bank of Nahal Gerar in the western Negev desert. In the southwestern part of the tell (Area K), a sacred complex is attested by architectural, material, and faunal remains. Architectural remains include a temple, courtyards, altar, bench room, and equid burial. The ceramic inventory is distinguished by large numbers of decorated vessels, especially bowls and stands, and miniature votives, while the faunal remains impress with sheer number as well as variety fo species.
This paper addresses the ways in which bioturbation affects our interpretations of archaeological materials. The Palestinian mole-rat (Spalax ehrenbergi), also called the Blind mole-rat, is common throughout the Levant. The burrowing activity of this animal affects the sedimentation, soil formation, and stratigraphy of archaeological sites. It also greatly affects the spatial distribution and preservation of artifacts, faunal material and botanical material. Over thousands of years, this activity "recreates" archaeological sites and their associated assemblages. Using evidence from our excavations at the Late Chalcolithic site of Tell Findi, Jordan, this paper examines how the burrowing of the mole-rat affects both the size sorting and the horizontal and vertical distribution of archaeological materials. A final consideration is to demonstrate how those factors affect archaeological interpretations of chronology, activity areas, and subsistence patterns.
A century ago, Arabic was the model for reconstructing "primitive semitic." This is now seen to be an over-simplification, but the fact remains that Arabic is of prime importance for linguistic history. It is now agreed that the pre-Islamic Arabic alphabet separated from the mainstream Phoenician alphabet at the transition from LB to EI. It is now clear that the language also separated from the Phoenician/Hebrew koine at the same time. The reason for these developments is the fact that migration into the Arabian desert took place at this period in time. As is usually the case, the migrants took their (Bronze Age) language with them, and in the relative isolation of the desert, their language escaped the drastic changes that were developing all over the Syro-Palestinian region under the impact of a massive influx of non-Semitic speaking populations.
In the past several years (1996-1997) an epigraphical survey was conducted in the region of Amman in conjunction with the Hinterland Survey of the Madaba Plains Project (MPP) directed by Dr. Oystein Labianca of Andrews University. The epigraphic project was a joint effort involving Yarmouk University, David Graf of the University of Miami and George Mendenhall of the University of Michigan. The primary objective of the expedition was to explore the desert region east of the desert highway between Amman and Qatrana for epigraphic remains of Pre-Islamic Arabian inscriptions. During the first season, the area covered by the survey extended from Muwaqqar in the north to Qatrana in the south, and east from the Desert Highway approximately 25 km. Over forty texts were found, the majority of the Thamudic "E" variety, with a few in Safaitic. In the second season, the focus was the area east of Amman between Muwwaqar and Azraq. In this region, at least 68 stones were found inscribed with over a hundred texts. These stones were almost all located on the tops of hills and high points inthe region. Of the texts collected, almost all were in Thamudic "E," with only a few Safaitic texts found. This region seems to be the frontier area where both scripts were used. The majority of texts contain merely names and genealogies, but a few tribal names (d'l) are mentioned, such as wj, ªqwm, tts, and rwh≥. In addition to collecting pre-Islamic epigraphic texts, the survey also recorded many modern bedouin tribal marks (wus„m) from the region, primarily occupied in recent times by the Bani Sakhr. The whole corpus of some two hundred texts will be published jointly by the directors of the expedition team.
The Pre-Islamic Inscriptions designated as Safaitic stand in contrast to their North Arabian counterparts-the Thamudic texts-in script, grammar, and content. Numerous Safaitic texts contain historical allusions, but are still difficult to date with certainty. For example, a text from Safawi in NE Jordan speaks of a "war between the Nabataeans and the Jews." Since the Nabataeans battled with the Jews from the time of Alexander Jannaeus to Aretas IV (90 BC to 36 AD), the precise date remains a problem. Some suggestions will be made as to the dating of such inscriptions.
Despite the importance of the site, the history and archaeology of Petra still remain relatively poorly known and understood. Two conflicting opinions exist concerning the development of the city. One holds that Roman art and architecture and heavily influenced the monuments in Petra, and the major development of the city should be dated to the Roman period (second to fourth centuries AD). More recent opinion associates most of the public buildings and the design of the city center with the activities of the Nabataean period (first century BC/AD). The "Roman Street in Petra" project conducted by the American Center of Oriental Research in 1997 has contributed substantially to a more balanced opinion, which holds that both periods witness considerable building activities. The origins of the Colonnaded Street and the associated shops should be assigned to the Nabataean period, but the extant appearance of the area is the result of a considerable expansion during the Roman period. In light of that development, it is apparent that Petra did not lose its political-economic importance after the annexation of the Nabataean kingdom in AD 106, and the city continued to flourish during the Roman provincial period.
Although there were a number of explorations of northwestern Arabia in the nineteenth century, scientific research of the region is marked by the expedition of Janssen and Savignac in 1907-1910. For all of its importance, their effort represented only a partial survey of the region. Only in the past thirty-five years has additional archaeological investigation has been made. F. V. Winnet and W. L. Reed's expedition in 1962 was followed by a number of other efforts. The highpoints are the excavations at Taymaº, and the surveys of the region, which recorded may new sites and inscriptions. In addition, I made two brief expeditions in the 1980s to visit key sites. The results of all of these efforts will be summarized and the prospects of future work outlined.
This paper will focus on distinctive characteristics of the Iron Age I and II material culture in the Madaba Plains, a region that it is believed fell within, at times, the territory of Reuben. Aspects of the material culture that will be specifically examined include the ceramic tradition, figurines and statuary, architecture and writing. The paper will then compare and contrast this material culture with Cisjordan to the west, Moab to the south, and Ammon to the north. Finally, the challenges and possibilities of ascribing ethnic affinities to the material culture and relating this to the biblical textual material, especially with regards to the Moabites, Ammonites and the tribe of Reuben, will be explored.
This paper will address the issue of why the land of north Moab was important in the Hebrew Bible. It will focus on: first, the meaning of the land of Moab in the time of Omri (and the related issue of where is Omri in the Hebrew Bible); second, the destructions and/or reoccupations of the sanctuaries of Dan (Tel Dan stela), Smaria (II Kings 10), Jerusalem (I Kings 11-12), and Nebo (Mesha Stele and II Kings 3) following the death of Ahab; third, the attitude of the new Jehu dynasty towards the land of north Moab; fourth, the response of the Jehu dynasty given an alternate view of Mesha regarding the possession of the land of north Moab. This paper will take the position that the Jehu dynasty and the prophetic movement considered Nebo to be the burial site of the founder of their people and that the actions of Mesha violated the natural order as established in Deut. 32:7-9 and adhered to by Israel in Judg. 11:12-28.
The recently initiated Dhiban Plateau Survey Project has set out to record new data that may bring the Moabite settlements and Iron Age history in this region into focus. This study combines these data with the results of other excavations and surveys in the Dhiban Plateau. One preliminary finding is that the Dhiban Plateau was encircled by a chain of Iron Age tower-like settlements found in groups, yet they were almost completely absent in the eastern desert fringe and the central part of the region. It is doubtful that these settlements should be referred to as military stations since there were too many of them within short distances from each other. In addition, they were often built in locales with no immediate relation to agriculture. Research shows that this pattern was related to various factors other than military defense along, including nomadic economy, climate, water, and tribal system. Nomadic economy seems to have played an especially decisive role in shaping Moabite society and economy. Archaeological problems will also be addressed in conjunction with the biblical narratives on the Reubenites in this region.
The seventh season of excavations at Tall al-'Umayri in Jordan took place during the summer of 1998. Work centered on answering questions about the early Iron I town and fortifications, tracing the southern and western extent of the late Iron II administrative complex, exploring the fortifications and possible gate along the southern edge of the site, and locating the extent of the ritual-use area surrounding the EB IB dolmen on the southeast slope of the site.
Roads and settlements clearly have an important reciprocal relationship in the history of a region; major roads determine the location of cities and towns, and cities and towns are established along important trails and roadways. Ancient settlement patterns throughout the Near East have become clearer as archaeologists focus their research on surface survey in specific regional areas. Less clear are the road systems that served as communication links among these settlements, since pre-Roman paths and roads rarely can be discerned in the physical environment. Reconstructions of ancient roads are generally historical geography studies, some of which synthesize archaeological data. The road reconstruction analyses in this study combine spatial geographic data, in the form of GIS terrain models, with archaeological and historical data to create more complete models of natural communication routes in a region. As applied to road reconstructions, the cartographic modelling process called the "optimal path" function uses terrain features such as slope gradient, water sources, and natural geographical obstacles to map the most likely natural route between two contemporananeous sites. The initial phase of this study reconstructs the Livias-Esbus road using two types of optimal path analysis based on physical geography and the relationship of Roman site locations to the reconstructed road. The results of fieldwork in 1998 to trace the reconstructed road and verify site locations will be used to fine-tune the model as a basis for studying regional social interaction through time.
Over the past three decades research by Madaba Plains Project archaeologists in the mountainous slopes and highlands of the Lower Jordan Valley in Central Transjordan has been concerned with reconstructing changes over time in long-term patterns of human exploitation of natural resources in order to provide food. This research has resulted in the demonstration of long-term food system cycles in the region involving periods of intense human alteration of the natural environment followed by periods of abatement in such activity. These cycles are clearly demonstrated in changes over time in the composition of domestic fauna from archaeological sites in the region. The present paper describes research currently underway to test the hypothesis that the process of deforestation in this part of the Southern Levant involved successive episodes of degeneration and regeneration of the Mediterranean forests culminating, over circa ten millennia, in its near complete removal by modern times. A correlation of these episodes with cyclic changes in the intensity of the local food system is reflected in, among other lines of evidence, shifts in the composition of the domestic fauna from archaeological sites in the project area. Furthermore, the gradual degeneration of the local forests which have accompanied expansion and contraction over time of intensive forms of agriculture is reflected in changes in the composition of the wild fauna, in particular, the avifauna. The research is being carried out with funding from the National Geographic Society.
During the 1970s the excavators of Tall Hisban found a 2.00-2.50 m wide by 4.00 m deep trench cut into the bedrock shelf on the southern side of the mound below the acropolis. Other small sections have recently been exposed bringing its total excavated length to almost 17 m. This features is somewhat unique in that there does not appear to be an exact parallel for it. Over the years a number of possible explanations for its function have been suggested in the literature, the two most prominent being that it was either a large water channel or a dry moat. This paper makes use of site formation models and analogies to similar features within the region to suggest that it indeed functioned as a dry moat.
During the summers of 1996-1998, the Madaba Plains project returned to the Tall Hisban hinterland and conducted a new survey within a five kilometer radius of the site. Principal goals for the survey were to collect baseline ceramic and environmental data, to locate and evaluate sites from previous surveys, and to discover new archaeological sites. This paper will present the preliminary results of this survey, concentrating on the evaluation of known sites and the discovery of new sites.
The general standard for archaeological publication is that a full and complete description of the work undertaken and the results of this work should be presented for other archaeologists. What has been lacking in such approaches is that the results of the excavations be made accessible to those scholars whose areas of research are most directly concerned with the excavations. Working at a site such as Sepphoris, with its rich cultural and literary associations, has made it imperative that those charged with the responsibility of publishing the archaeological results also engage in a dialogue with disciplines rising out of literary sources. Such an approach, seeking to place the archaeological results of the excavations within an historical, social, and religious context, is the larger goal of the SRP publications.
The paper presents the preliminary results of the analysis of key soil layers excavated in area 85.3 on the western summit of the Sepphoris Acropolis. The character and contents of these layers enable us to reconstruct the use of the substantial architectural remains of a large fortification first encountered in the 1993 season. Three subsequent stratigraphic phases of different character dating to the time between the end of the Hasmonaean period in the mid first century BCE and the last years before the outbreak of the First Jewish Revolt in the mid first century CE shed a fascinating light on a crucial epoch of the history of Sepphoris. A brief excursus on the use of the area during the later Iron and Persian Age, on the possible date for construction of the fortress under the Seleucids, and its history during the late Roman and Byzantine periods respectively intend to complement the picture.
This paper summarizes the character and phasing of the architectural remains that comprise the Hellenistic fortress excavated on the west summit of the Sepphoris acropolis. This discussion also addresses questions of the building's various purposes throughout its occupational history and its significance in the cultural and political history of Sepphoris as the city developed during the late Hellenistic period through the era of the First Jewish Revolt against Rome.
The Sepphoris Regional Project's excavations of Area 85.3 at the site of Sepphoris have uncovered a large sample of well-preserved faunal remains. Presented here is an overview of the faunal material recovered from Area 85.3, in and around a possible Late Hellenistic to Early Roman Period military installation, which reveal patterns of animal use and diet preferences of the ancient inhabitants of Sepphoris. Additionally, ancient Sepphoris was known from written sources as a center for commercial butchering. Extensive evidence of standardized butchering practices support this historical description of the ancient city.
Glass technology in the Syro-Palestinian region underwent a dramatic change during the first century BCE. At this time, the dominant method of glass-working, glass-casting, was superseded by a new method, glass-blowing. The glass corpus from the Sepphoris Regional Project's excavations on the acropolis of Sepphoris reflects this change, with cast vessels becoming significantly rare as the Early Roman Period progressed. This paper will explore the differences between the assemblages from the Late Hellenistic Period and Early Roman Period, and will offer some suggestions about the population living in the acropolis area at Sepphoris and how it changed over time.
The long-term work of the Sepphoris excavations on the western acropolis has produced remarkable results over the last fourteen years. First, it has confirmed the existence of a major first century BCE and CE occupation. The late Hellenistic occupation may be associated with a large military outpost to the east, while first-century CE remains, surprisingly well-preserved, are attested throughout the areas. Significantly, the Middle Roman period is least well-preserved architecturally, though ceramically it is most abundant. This may be explained as a result of the extensive fourth century renovations. The Late Roman material (fourth century to 363 CE) represents the best preserved period of the Roman era. The Byzantine and Early Arab periods though less well attested provide clear evidence of continuous occupation till ca. 1000 CE. Analysis of the material indicates uniformity of occupation from ca. 0-363, with a change in the character of the western summit coming after 363. Faunal remains in particular have been helpful in identifying the ethnic character of different groups. Special finds have also illuminated the strong Hellenistic influences on all major periods of occupation. The SRP believes that the presentation of this material in its complete architectural context will facilitate understanding these important matters.
Under the auspices of the Madaba Plains Project, the second season of archaeological surveys in the region of ºIraq al-Amir was carried out in 1998, concentrating on the Wadi esh-Shueºib. In 1996, the survey focused on the region along the Wadi es-Seer and recorded 86 sites of a wide range of period. Finds from the 1996 survey indicate that the survey area witnessed high settlement intensification in the Byzantine and Islamic periods and low intensification in the EB, Irion II, Hellenistic, and Roman periods. The 1998 season was designed specifically to examine the existence of ancient settlements and road systems connecting the Jordan Valley with ºIraq al-Amir and the Transjordan plateau, particularly along the Wadi el-Kefrein and the Wadi Jerieh. Attention was also given to the settlements in the hilly, arid regions between the Wadi el-Kefrein and the Wadi es-Shueºib to investigate its association with ºIraq al-Amir and the settlements along the Wadi el-Kefrein. Historical implications of the survey results will be addressed.
The project's purpose is an archaeological study of the town at Umm el-Jimal and its landscape in northern Jordan. The 1998 season was designed to complete a number of field processes, including final excavation and surface study of the first to third century village site, completion of excavation and mapping of cemeteries, re-examination of religious structures at the second to ninth century town site and completion of the site development study. In the concurrent publication phase of the project volumes II and III of the final field reports Religion and Society at Umm el-Jimal and The Ceramic Corpus from Umm el-Jimal are in preparation.
The Karak Resources Project began excavations at Mudaybi', Jordan in 1997. KRP's fielding of a diverse group of experts at this distinctive site made for a productive season. Mudaybi' is strategically located on the Karak Plateau and contains several rare features including proto-Ionic capitals in a chambered gateway, basalt building materials, minimal modern disturbance, etc. The high state of preservation is due to the site's isolation from villages and its location on the fringe of arable land and the desert. This paper will report on the unique features previously listed and the importance of this site for gaining information about the little-known Karak Plateau. Furthermore, the paper will briefly state the advantages of the tri-focused field team (archaeology team, regional survey team, and cultural anthropology team) that was employed by the KRP, the variety of experts within each team, and the key features that made the 1997 season highly successful.
This report discusses the first season of excavation at Khirbet Cana for the summer of 1998. The paper discusses three goals: 1) to determine the range of occupation; 2) to determine dates of several key buildings and other human habitation, and 3) to locate the site within its broader geographic and geologic history. Several key areas will be checked, notably a large building on the acropolis, probes of building remains on the lower southern half of the site that appear to date from the Byzantine period to the fifteenth century, and an area on the west slope that may date to the Roman period. A geological profile of the site will include a comparison of the changes in the Bet Netofa Valley through an analysis of well logs done in the Valley. Finally, the paper will discuss the use of GPS and GIS systems in gathering and storing the data.
In 1997, the Karak Resources Project (KRP) conducted its second season of fieldwork on central Jordan’s Karak plateau. KRP’s primary purpose is to document ways in which this region’s inhabitants have exploited natural resources, including site location and access to trade goods. KRP ’97 worked on three fronts by: (1) excavating the site of al-Mudaybi (in the plateau’s southeastern corner); (2) continuing regional archaeological survey, and (3) conducting regional scientific studies (cultural anthropology, geology, geomorphology, human geography, and soil science).
Thirteen new sites were located in 1997, and KRP’s multidisciplinary research team began to locate Mudaybi in its historical, cultural, and environmental contexts. Ethnographic inquiry established the importance of this site as a crossroad for bedouin seeking summer pasturage, water, and access to local markets. An abundance of building stone, a network a water sources, good soils, and a strategic position halfway between the "King’s Highway" and the "Desert Highway" guaranteed that Mudaybi played a prominent role in military, administrative, agricultural, and commercial activities. Evidence concerning the export of basalt and the import of alabaster hints at the nature of trade in its vicinity. Pottery, artifacts, and faunal and botanical remains suggest that inhabitants of this fortress on the desert fringe prospered during Iron Age II and the Late Byzantine through Islamic periods. The presence of an Iron II multichamber gate complex, which included elaborately carved voluted capitals, indicates that Mudaybi was a significant outpost on the Moabite frontier.
The project’s principal goal is to reconstruct the economy of the Roman port of Aila, now within the modern city of Aqaba on the Red Sea. The project focuses on Aila’s economy in the broader context of the economy of the Roman Empire from the first century BC through seventh centuries AD. The research design includes 1) a regional archaeological and environmental survey of the environs of Aila, 2) excavation of selected areas of the ancient city to examine its economy and history, and 3) analysis of artifacts and other material relevant to the regional economy. The research is revealing the nature of the urban economy, Aila’s role in international trade between the Roman Empire and its eastern neighbors, the impact of the regional environment on the urban economy, and how human activity influenced the environment.
The third major campaign in 1998 will continue excavation in several old and new areas. The earliest stratified evidence reflects the port’s Nabataean origins. A monumental mudbrick structure and associated cemetery of the fourth century AD may represent one of the earliest Christian churches yet known. By ca. AD 400 the city was defended by a stone curtain wall with projecting towers. South of the curtain wall, occupation clearly continued into the Early Islamic Period. Various evidence documents Aila’s commercial connections and local pottery and copper industries. Survey of southern Wadi Araba, which has recorded 234 archaeological sites, will continue. The survey is illuminating one of the city’s major access routes, its rural hinterland, and nomadic neighbors.